Jewish peoplehood

Jewish peoplehood (Hebrew: עמיות יהודית, Amiut Yehudit), also sometimes referred to as the whole of Israel (Hebrew: כלל ישראל, Klal Yisrael),^[1] is the conception of the awareness of the underlying unity that makes an individual a part of the Jewish people.^[2]

The concept of peoplehood has a double meaning. The first is descriptive, as a concept factually describing the existence of the Jews as a people, i.e. an ethnoreligious group^[3] and nation,^[4] originating from the Israelites of ancient Israel and Judah.^[5] The second is normative, as a value that describes the feeling of belonging and commitment to the Jewish people.^[6]

Some believe that the concept of Jewish peoplehood is a paradigm shift in Jewish life. Insisting that the mainstream of Jewish life is focused on Jewish nationalism (Zionism), they argue that Jewish life should instead focus on Jewish peoplehood.^[7]

Others maintain that the concept of peoplehood has permeated Jewish life for millennia, and to focus on it does not constitute a shift from the focus on Jewish nationhood. Jews have been extremely effective in sustaining a sense of joint responsibility towards their people and its members for over 2,000 years, with persecutions such as the expulsion of Roman Jews from the vicinity of Jerusalem and the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba^[8]^[9] resulting in more than 100,000 slaves^[10] taken as war captives in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt which contributed to a significant rise in the historical Jewish diaspora,^[11] subsequently since the late Roman period significant recovery through common religious practices, shared ancestry, continuous communication, and population transfers between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews, during which time the former had a "Hebrew Golden Age",^[12] subsequently though with Zionist aliyah (immigration since the birth of Zionism to political entities in the region of Palestine and the State of Israel) resulting in Israeli scholar Eliezer Schweid warning against a Zionist "negation of the Diaspora".^[13]^[14]

At the same time, the concepts of Jews as a nation and as a peoplehood are not necessarily at odds with one another. The very concept of defining Judaism as a people or a "civilization" suggests a wide variety of values within the context of Judaism.^[15]

Jewish writings

The concept of a distinctive Jewish people has been part of Jewish culture since the development of the Hebrew Bible. Throughout the Torah, Prophets and Writings, Jews are variously referred to as a congregation, a nation, children of Israel or even a kingdom, (Eda, Uma, Am, B'nai Israel, Mamlakha respectively) all implying a connection among people.^[16]

"There is a certain people scattered abroad and dispersed among the peoples in all the provinces of thy kingdom; and their laws are diverse from those of every people". Esther 3:8^[17]

History

Jewish people in the diaspora during the Middle Ages were united by a common history, although this did not create a unified society. Jacob Katz writes that medieval Jews in the diaspora maintained educational, civil, and religious institutions based on a common tradition, although they varied from place to place. Jewish communities were separate in many cases from their environment, and had extensive mutual contacts with each other, including mutual aid, responses to crises, and concern for each others' fate, dependent on long-distance travel and communication. Particularly in the 16th through 18th centuries, contacts between diaspora Jewish communities were stronger than in any period since the decline of the Roman Empire. Katz cites 1745 in Prague and Khmelnytsky pogroms as examples of crises that saw worldwide responses from Jewish communities.^[18]

Modern Jewish peoplehood

Some modern Jewish leaders in the diaspora, particularly American Jews, found the traditional conception of Jews as a "nation among the nations" problematic, posing a challenge to integration and inviting antisemitic charges of dual loyalty. The first significant use of the "peoplehood" concept was by Mordecai Kaplan, co-founder of the Reconstructionist School of Judaism, who was searching for a term that would enable him to describe the complex nature of Jewish belonging. Once the State of Israel was founded, he rejected the concept of nationhood, as it had become too closely identified with statehood, and replaced it with the peoplehood concept.^[19] In his work Judaism as a Civilization, Kaplan sought to define the Jewish people and religion in socio-cultural terms as well as religious ones.

Kaplan's definition of Judaism as "an evolving religious civilization" illumines his understanding of the centrality of Peoplehood in the Jewish religion. Describing Judaism as a religious civilization emphasizes the idea that Jewish people have sought "to make [their] collective experience yield meaning for the enrichment of the life of the individual Jew and for the spiritual greatness of the Jewish people." The definition as a civilization allows Judaism to accept the principles of unity in diversity and continuity in change. It is a reminder that Judaism consists of much that cannot be put into the category of religion in modern times, "paradoxical as it may sound, the spiritual regeneration of the Jewish people demands that religion cease to be its sole preoccupation."^[20] In the sense that existence precedes essence and life takes precedence over thought, Judaism exists for the sake of the Jewish people rather than the Jewish people existing for the sake of Judaism.^[15]

Kaplan's purpose in developing the Jewish Peoplehood idea was to create a vision broad enough to include everyone who identified as a Jew regardless of individual approaches to that identity.^[21]

In modern Jewish life

Since 2000, major Jewish organizations have embraced the peoplehood concept and intellectual interest in the topic has increased. Major organizations such as the Jewish Federations of North America, the JFNA New York Federation, the Jewish Agency for Israel, the Israel Ministry for Education, the Diaspora Museum, the Avi Chai Foundation, the American Jewish Committee and many other smaller organizations are either introducing the peoplehood concept as an organizing principle in their organizations or initiating high-profile programming with an explicit focus on Jewish Peoplehood.^[22]

Natan Sharansky, the Jewish Agency’s chairman, declared that the agency’s traditional Zionist mission had outlived its usefulness. In his new capacity, he has made Israel education and promoting Jewish Peoplehood a priority, particularly among the young.^[23]

Key characteristics

Alongside the use of the peoplehood concept by Jewish organizations, there is a parallel growth of intellectual interest in the topic since 2000. The intellectual discussion asks: What is "Jewish Peoplehood"? What are the key characteristics that distinguish Jewish Peoplehood from other concepts or other ethnic or religious communities?^[24]

Areas of agreement

The areas of agreement among Jewish intellectuals writing about the concept of Jewish Peoplehood point to three principles:

The three unifying principles of the Jewish Peoplehood theory:

A multidimensional experience of Jewish belonging – The concept of Jewish Peoplehood assumes an understanding of Jewish belonging that is multidimensional.
Rejection of any dominant ideology, which over emphasizes one dimension of Jewishness - Strong ideological frameworks that overemphasize one dimension of the larger Jewish experience are not an acceptable starting point for understanding how individuals connect to the Jewish People.
Focus on the nature of the connection between Jews and not on the Jewish Identity - Those concerned with the Jewish Peoplehood concept do not focus on the identity of individuals, but rather on the nature of connections between Jews. The concern is with common elements and frameworks that enable Jews to connect with one another both emotionally and socially.

In combination, these three principles imbue the Peoplehood concept with coherence and offer an added value to organizations that wish to create programs “that build Jewish Peoplehood” in a sustainable and measurable way.^[25]

Different perspectives

There are several variants of the communitarian position among intellectuals writing about Jewish Peoplehood. The common denominator is the desire to find common ground upon which connections between Jews are built.

The four distinct positions regarding Jewish Peoplehood:

Peoplehood as a common destiny.^[26]
Peoplehood as a shared mission with an emphasis on Tikkun Olam.^[27]^[28]
Peoplehood as a shared kinship and mutual responsibility.^[29]
Peoplehood as an obligation.^[30]

For some critics, Jewish Peoplehood is still an amorphous and abstract concept that presents an optional ideological approach towards the Jewish collective. Others wonder if it is too weak a foundation on which to base Jewish collective identity, especially since the vision of Peoplehood is not necessarily predicated on having any kind of religious or spiritual identity.^[23]

References

^ Perlberger, Hanna (January 11, 2020). "Sharing the Secret to Jewish Unity". Chabad.org. Retrieved May 3, 2024.
^ Peoplehood Now, sponsored by the NADAV Foundation, editors: Shlomi Ravid, Shelley Kedar, Research: Ari Engelberg, Elana Sztokman, Varda Rafaeli, p.11
^
- Ethnic minorities in English law. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.
- Edgar Litt (1961). "Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism". Social Forces. 39 (4): 328–32. doi:10.2307/2573430. JSTOR 2573430.
- Craig R. Prentiss (2003). Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-8147-6700-9.
- The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5.
- Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea. Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1.
- John A. Shoup III (2011). Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-59884-363-7.
- Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8.
^
*M. Nicholson (2002). International Relations: A Concise Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-8147-5822-9. The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel
- Jacob Neusner (1991). An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 375–. ISBN 978-0-664-25348-6. That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel
- Alan Dowty (1998). The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface. University of California Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-520-92706-3. Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos
- Brandeis, Louis (25 April 1915). "The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It". University of Louisville School of Law. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member
- Palmer, Edward Henry (2002) [First published 1874]. A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-69-7. OCLC 51578088. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
^
*Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. pp. 337–. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0. The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history
- Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500. Wadsworth Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-495-50288-3. The people of Judah survived, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism, the religion of Yahweh, the Israelite God.
- Scheindlin, Raymond P. (1998). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9. Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites
- Cline, Eric H. (2004). Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-472-11313-5. OCLC 54913803. Few would seriously challenge the belief that most modern Jews are descended from the ancient Hebrews
- Harry Ostrer MD (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press. pp. 19–22. ISBN 978-0-19-997638-6.
^ The Peoplehood Papers IV, edited by Ravid S., United Jewish Communities, Kol Dor, The Jewish Peoplehood HUB, Tel Aviv, 2009, p.37
^ The Peoplehood Papers III, edited by Ravid S., Serkin T., United Jewish Communities, The International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies at Beit Hatfutsot, Tel Aviv, 2008, p.20
^ Bar, Doron (2005). "Rural Monasticism as a Key Element in the Christianization of Byzantine Palestine". The Harvard Theological Review. 98 (1): 49–65. doi:10.1017/S0017816005000854. ISSN 0017-8160. JSTOR 4125284. S2CID 162644246. The phenomenon was most prominent in Judea, and can be explained by the demographic changes that this region underwent after the second Jewish revolt of 132-135 C.E. The expulsion of Jews from the area of Jerusalem following the suppression of the revolt, in combination with the penetration of pagan populations into the same region, created the conditions for the diffusion of Christians into that area during the fifth and sixth centuries.
^ Mor 2016, pp. 483–484: "Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. [...] There is no doubt that this area (Judea) suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba."
^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade", p. 122, citing Chronicon Paschale 1.474 ed. Dindorf..
^ E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian: a Study in Political Relations, Brill Publishers 2001 p.507.
^ Gregory B. Kaplan, Review of: The Compunctious Poet: Cultural Ambiguity and Hebrew Poetry in Muslim Spain, Ross Brann, Johns Hopkins UP, 1991. Hispanic Review, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Summer, 1993), pp. 405–407. Available here, from Jstor
^ E. Schweid, "Rejection of the Diaspora in Zionist Thought", in Essential Papers on Zionsm, ed. By Reinharz & Shapira, 1996, ISBN 0-8147-7449-0, p.133
^ Making Peoplehood Work: The Institutional Challenge, Dr. Shlomi Ravid, The Peoplehood Papers II, edited by Serkin D,. Kol Dor, The International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies at Beit Hatfutsot, Tel Aviv, 2008 , p.27
^ ^a ^b *Emanuel S. Goldsmith, "Salvational Zionism and Religious Naturalism in the Thought of Mordecai M. Kaplan" Archived 2010-06-20 at the Wayback Machine
^ The Peoplehood Papers I, edited by Corbin K., Fram Plotkin A., Levine E., Most G., United Jewish Communities, New York, 2007, p.38
^ *Esther 3:8
^ Katz, Jacob (2000-02-01). Tradition and Crisis: Jewish Society at the End of the Middle Ages. Syracuse University Press. pp. 4–8. ISBN 978-0-8156-2827-9.
^ A Framework for the Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, Kopelowitz, E. and Engelberg A., Platforma, Jerusalem, 2007, p. 4
^ Mordecai M. Kaplan, Judaism as a Civilization, New York: Macmillan, 1934, p.345
^ Peoplehood Now, p.13
^ A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p. 4
^ ^a ^b Embattled Jewish Agency To Promote Identity Over Aliyah, Gal Beckerman
^ A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p. 7
^ A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p.9-10
^ The Ministry for Diaspora Affairs and Combating Antisemitism (27 September 2020). "Our Common Destiny". www.gov.il. Retrieved May 3, 2024.
^ "Tikkun olam and tikkun Yisrael: Notion that Jewish people should help each other". The Jerusalem Post. 2023-03-19. ISSN 0792-822X. Retrieved 2024-05-03.
^ Palvanov, Efraim (2023-08-24). "The Real Meaning of Tikkun Olam". Mayim Achronim. Retrieved 2024-05-03.
^ "ahavas yisroel - Jewish English Lexicon". jel.jewish-languages.org. Retrieved 2024-05-03.
^ A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p.13-14

Works cited

External links

[1] Perlberger, Hanna (January 11, 2020). "Sharing the Secret to Jewish Unity". Chabad.org. Retrieved May 3, 2024.

[2] Peoplehood Now, sponsored by the NADAV Foundation, editors: Shlomi Ravid, Shelley Kedar, Research: Ari Engelberg, Elana Sztokman, Varda Rafaeli, p.11

[Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group-3] 
Ethnic minorities in English law. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.

Edgar Litt (1961). "Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism". Social Forces. 39 (4): 328–32. doi:10.2307/2573430. JSTOR 2573430.

Craig R. Prentiss (2003). Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-8147-6700-9.

The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5.

Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea. Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1.

John A. Shoup III (2011). Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-59884-363-7.

Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8.

[4] Ethnic minorities in English law. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.

[5] Edgar Litt (1961). "Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism". Social Forces. 39 (4): 328–32. doi:10.2307/2573430. JSTOR 2573430.

[6] Craig R. Prentiss (2003). Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-8147-6700-9.

[7] The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5.

[8] Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea. Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1.

[9] John A. Shoup III (2011). Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-59884-363-7.

[10] Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8.

[4] *M. Nicholson (2002). International Relations: A Concise Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-8147-5822-9. The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel
Jacob Neusner (1991). An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 375–. ISBN 978-0-664-25348-6. That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel

Alan Dowty (1998). The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface. University of California Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-520-92706-3. Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos

Brandeis, Louis (25 April 1915). "The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It". University of Louisville School of Law. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member

Palmer, Edward Henry (2002) [First published 1874]. A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-69-7. OCLC 51578088. Retrieved 2 April 2012.

[12] Jacob Neusner (1991). An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 375–. ISBN 978-0-664-25348-6. That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel

[13] Alan Dowty (1998). The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface. University of California Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-520-92706-3. Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos

[14] Brandeis, Louis (25 April 1915). "The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It". University of Louisville School of Law. Retrieved 2 April 2012. Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member

[15] Palmer, Edward Henry (2002) [First published 1874]. A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-69-7. OCLC 51578088. Retrieved 2 April 2012.

[5] *Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. pp. 337–. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0. The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history
Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500. Wadsworth Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-495-50288-3. The people of Judah survived, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism, the religion of Yahweh, the Israelite God.

Scheindlin, Raymond P. (1998). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9. Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites

Cline, Eric H. (2004). Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-472-11313-5. OCLC 54913803. Few would seriously challenge the belief that most modern Jews are descended from the ancient Hebrews

Harry Ostrer MD (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press. pp. 19–22. ISBN 978-0-19-997638-6.

[17] Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500. Wadsworth Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-495-50288-3. The people of Judah survived, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism, the religion of Yahweh, the Israelite God.

[18] Scheindlin, Raymond P. (1998). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9. Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites

[19] Cline, Eric H. (2004). Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-472-11313-5. OCLC 54913803. Few would seriously challenge the belief that most modern Jews are descended from the ancient Hebrews

[20] Harry Ostrer MD (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press. pp. 19–22. ISBN 978-0-19-997638-6.

[6] The Peoplehood Papers IV, edited by Ravid S., United Jewish Communities, Kol Dor, The Jewish Peoplehood HUB, Tel Aviv, 2009, p.37

[7] The Peoplehood Papers III, edited by Ravid S., Serkin T., United Jewish Communities, The International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies at Beit Hatfutsot, Tel Aviv, 2008, p.20

[8] Bar, Doron (2005). "Rural Monasticism as a Key Element in the Christianization of Byzantine Palestine". The Harvard Theological Review. 98 (1): 49–65. doi:10.1017/S0017816005000854. ISSN 0017-8160. JSTOR 4125284. S2CID 162644246. The phenomenon was most prominent in Judea, and can be explained by the demographic changes that this region underwent after the second Jewish revolt of 132-135 C.E. The expulsion of Jews from the area of Jerusalem following the suppression of the revolt, in combination with the penetration of pagan populations into the same region, created the conditions for the diffusion of Christians into that area during the fifth and sixth centuries.

[9] Mor 2016, pp. 483–484: "Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. [...] There is no doubt that this area (Judea) suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba."

[FOOTNOTEHarris,_"Towards_a_Study_of_the_Roman_Slave_Trade"122,_citing_''[[Chronicon_Paschale]]''_1.474_ed._Dindorf.-10] Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade", p. 122, citing Chronicon Paschale 1.474 ed. Dindorf..

[Smallwood2-11] E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian: a Study in Political Relations, Brill Publishers 2001 p.507.

[12] Gregory B. Kaplan, Review of: The Compunctious Poet: Cultural Ambiguity and Hebrew Poetry in Muslim Spain, Ross Brann, Johns Hopkins UP, 1991. Hispanic Review, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Summer, 1993), pp. 405–407. Available here, from Jstor

[13] E. Schweid, "Rejection of the Diaspora in Zionist Thought", in Essential Papers on Zionsm, ed. By Reinharz & Shapira, 1996, ISBN 0-8147-7449-0, p.133

[14] Making Peoplehood Work: The Institutional Challenge, Dr. Shlomi Ravid, The Peoplehood Papers II, edited by Serkin D,. Kol Dor, The International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies at Beit Hatfutsot, Tel Aviv, 2008 , p.27

[religion-online-15] *Emanuel S. Goldsmith, "Salvational Zionism and Religious Naturalism in the Thought of Mordecai M. Kaplan" Archived 2010-06-20 at the Wayback Machine

[16] The Peoplehood Papers I, edited by Corbin K., Fram Plotkin A., Levine E., Most G., United Jewish Communities, New York, 2007, p.38

[17] *Esther 3:8

[18] Katz, Jacob (2000-02-01). Tradition and Crisis: Jewish Society at the End of the Middle Ages. Syracuse University Press. pp. 4–8. ISBN 978-0-8156-2827-9.

[19] A Framework for the Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, Kopelowitz, E. and Engelberg A., Platforma, Jerusalem, 2007, p. 4

[20] Mordecai M. Kaplan, Judaism as a Civilization, New York: Macmillan, 1934, p.345

[21] Peoplehood Now, p.13

[22] A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p. 4

[EmbattledJewish-23] Embattled Jewish Agency To Promote Identity Over Aliyah, Gal Beckerman

[24] A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p. 7

[25] A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p.9-10

[26] The Ministry for Diaspora Affairs and Combating Antisemitism (27 September 2020). "Our Common Destiny". www.gov.il. Retrieved May 3, 2024.

[27] "Tikkun olam and tikkun Yisrael: Notion that Jewish people should help each other". The Jerusalem Post. 2023-03-19. ISSN 0792-822X. Retrieved 2024-05-03.

[28] Palvanov, Efraim (2023-08-24). "The Real Meaning of Tikkun Olam". Mayim Achronim. Retrieved 2024-05-03.

[29] "ahavas yisroel - Jewish English Lexicon". jel.jewish-languages.org. Retrieved 2024-05-03.

[30] A Framework for Strategic Thinking about Jewish Peoplehood, p.13-14

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